History of the Spiral Universe
Author: Sajid
Mahmood Anasri
We discussed
the structure of the universe in our previous article titled The Spiral Universe. We concluded that the universe is spinning on
its axis like a giant spiral galaxy. We drew this conclusion on the basis of
the Prophetic narrative and observational data. Now, this paper aims to give a
brief history of the universe again with the help of observational data. In our
paper Basics of the Muslim Cosmology, we spotted the light on the faith in creation in
Islam and how the scientific theories progressed towards a universe that
had an origin in the remote past. However, this paper aims to give an updated
history of the spiral universe, from origin to present, based on Muslim
Cosmology.
Divine Programming
Allah Almighty says:
“Glorify
the name of your Lord, the Exalted,
Who created, then evolved. And Who programmed then guided.”
He says further:
“He,
Whose is the kingdom of the heavens and the earth, and Who did not take to Himself a son, and
Who has no associate in the kingdom, and
Who created everything, so predetermined for it a measure.”
Allah Almighty
programmed the harmonic cosmos before its creation. The Qur’anic narratives and
their explanation by the Messenger of Allah (May Allah shower His blessings and
peace on him) show that the ‘Divine Programming’ is inscribed on a physical but
non-material tablet named Lawh Mahfooz (Safeguarded Tablet), which lies
above the seven heavens. The inscription of Divine Programming marks the
beginning of time and space in Muslim Cosmology, while it happened 50000
heavenly years before the differentiation of the cosmos into seven heavens and
the earth.
Abdullah b. 'Amr bin al-'As (May Allah be pleased with him) reported:
I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) saying: Allah ordained the measures of the creation fifty thousand years
before He created the heavens and the earth.
The inscription in Lawh Mahfooz denotes the creation of light, as it has been reported in Tafsir
Ibn Jarir at-Tabri that the Safeguarded Tablet is made of light. Actually, the Lawh Mahfooz was nothing but the appearance of an inscription in the form of light. The light inscribed Lawh
Mahfooz is said to be Al-Qalam (The Pen) metaphorically, to make the
concept conceivable.
Ubadah bin As-Samit (May Allah be
pleased with him) reported:
‘I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) saying:
“Verily the first of what Allah created was the Pen. He said to it: “Write.” So
it wrote what will be forever.’”
So the creation of the Pen and the Safeguarded Tablet happened concurrently.
This is why we say that the inscription on the Safeguarded Tablet denotes the
beginning of space and time. The inscription might be a super-complex code that
translated into the creation accordingly by the Will of the Almighty Lord.
Evolutionary
Pattern in Creation
Almighty, all Knowing, Omnipotent Lord is capable of doing everything,
even that which we never imagined. However, He generally creates in an
evolutionary pattern, making things possible to comprehend.
We strictly believe in the following Qur’anic narrative:
“Glorify the name of your Lord, the Exalted, Who created, then evolved. And Who programmed then guided.”
It is explicitly mentioned in the Holy Qur’an that Almighty Allah
created the cosmos in six consecutive phases or periods, as it follows:
Indeed your Lord is Allah Who
created the heavens and the earth in six periods, then established Himself
on the Throne. He makes the day and night overlap in rapid succession. He
created the sun, the moon, and the stars—all subjected to His command. The
creation and the command belong to Him ˹alone˺. Blessed is Allah—Lord of all
worlds!
The creation of the cosmos in six consecutive phases does not violate any
Divine Attribute, but it affirms His Chief Attribute Rabb; which renders
the Lord Who transforms the simple things into complex and perfect order. So,
there is no wonder that Allah Almighty created the cosmos in six lengthy
periods.
It is worth mentioning that the Qur’an describes the relativity of time
in clear words.
A Day with your Lord is like a
thousand years in your reckoning.
So, when talking about the time period, particularly, in the account of
Creation, one should be clear that the time period is referenced to the
heavenly time, rather the lunar or solar days. Our next paper will address the
relativity of time in sha Allah.
Primordial Light
The
eloquent and articulate way of expressing of the Holy Qur’an is extremely
appreciable, particularly when it expresses the cosmic facts in comprehensive
and specific words. It is the miraculous style of the Qur’an that expressed the
origin of the cosmos through a single word (
الفلق Al-Falaq)
that appears in the first Ayah of Surah Al-Falaq (Ch.113).
The
Qur’an reads:
“Say, “I seek refuge in the Lord of Al-Falaq; from
the evil of that which He created.”
The
Arabic construction Al-Falaq has been derived from the root ف ل ق renders to the meaning of breaking open or apart suddenly and violently,
especially as a result of an impact or internal pressure. So the proper noun Al-Falaq
holds the meaning of a specific burst or explosion. But it is not the whole story of Al-Falaq.
Al-Falaq refers to the intense Burst of Light that
caused the creation of matter. It is not a far-fetched meaning for a biased
intention. Abdullah bin Abbas (May Allah be pleased with them), a cousin and close companion
of the last Messenger Muhammad (May He shower His blessings and peace on him),
profoundly said:
“Al-Falaq refers to the
creation.”
So Al-Falq refers to the dawn of the cosmos, meant for the
appearance of the Primordial Light, in the form of a white hole-like
singularity. A white hole is a spiraling pool of intense light with the strongest
electromagnetic field. A group of astrophysicists assume that the Big Bang was
the biggest white hole.
However, the white hole is a complement to a black hole theoretically.
We don’t believe in the existence of a black hole prior to the Big Bang. No
matter existed prior to this cosmic event, to create a black hole. Thence, the
Primordial Light Energy was self-sustained and independent of any black hole-like structure. Then where did it come from? Obviously, it came out of Divine Programming.
The beginning of the cosmos from the Primordial Light is not merely an
assumption, but strong scientific evidence supports this idea. Cosmic Microwave
Background (CMB) radiation, scattered throughout space; is the
preserved remnant light of the Primordial Light, which is considered a strong
pillar of the Big Bang Theory as well.
Seeds of Galaxies
We believe that the history of the early universe is preserved in the
galaxies. According to the Spiral
Universe model, originally proposed by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad (May Allah
shower His peace and blessings on him), the galaxies evolved out of Primordial Light. The Spiraling Primordial Light gave off the galaxies in the
form of Quasars (Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources). Actually, quasars are the seeds of
the galaxies.
American space agency NASA introduces quasars as follows:
Quasars are
farther away from Earth than any other known object in the universe. Because they are so far away
from us, it takes billions of years for the light they give off to reach Earth.
The light stays the same, it just has to travel a long time to get to us. When
we look at a quasar, it is like we are looking back in time. The light we see
today is what the quasar looked like billions of years ago. Some scientists
think that when they study quasars they are studying the beginning of the
universe.
Quasars give off
huge amounts of energy. They can be a trillion times brighter than the
Sun! Astronomers think that quasars are
located in galaxies which have black holes at their centers. The
black holes may provide quasars with their energy. Quasars are so bright that
they drown out the light from all other stars in the same galaxy. The word
quasar is short for quasi-stellar radio source. Quasars give off radio waves, X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet rays, and visible light. Most of them are
larger than our solar system.
Sometimes, Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN) is treated as a synonym for quasars.
European space agency ESA explains Active Galactic Nucleus while discussing the
new image of a Quasars SDSS J165202.64+172852.3, recently sent by James Webb Space Telescope:
An AGN is a compact region at
the center of a galaxy, which is emitting enough electromagnetic
radiation to outshine all the galaxy’s stars. AGNs, including quasars, are
powered by gas falling into a supermassive black hole at the center of their
galaxy.
These incredible statements from NASA and ESA prove the validity of our
idea that quasars are seeds of galaxies, from which a galaxy grow. The highly
energetic Primordial Light caused to the production of quasars or the like objects which
originally inherited the information from the Primordial Light. In our opinion, the
reason behind the extraordinary luminosity of quasars or Active Galactic
Nuclei is not the presence of a black hole, but it must be a white hole or
something like a white hole. The information inherited from Primordial Light
paved the way to create fundamental particles of matter, in all the Active Galactic
Nuclei. Because all the Active Galactic Nuclei inherited the same information
in the same conditions, that is why they all follow the same natural laws to
create the same particles of matter.
Scientific data supports that the existence of a white hole in an Active
Galactic Nucleus is no more a strange idea, as these objects emit gamma rays
profoundly.
A group of researchers at Harvard University (USA) observes:
There is a new group of γ-ray
bursts, which are relatively close to Earth, but surprisingly lack any
supernova emission. We propose identifying these bursts with white holes. White
holes seem like the best explanation for γ-ray bursts that appear in voids. We
also predict the detection of rare gigantic γ-ray bursts with energies much
higher than typically observed.
Marcelo Samuel Berman, from Instituto Albert
Einstein, Brazil, (March 2007) observed in his paper that the entire universe
might be behaving like a white hole.
We have shown, in a different context than in
Pathria’s paper (where p = 0, and Λ obeys certain conditions), that the closed
Robertson-Walker’s Universe, with any value of p constrained to obey Einstein’s
field equations, may be thought as being a white-hole.
In 1994, Ori and Poisson proposed that quasars might be white holes.
White holes were understood as the time
reversal of black holes, and therefore, it was believed that they should
persistently throw away matter, and be detected much easier than the dark black
holes. Initially, white holes were even proposed as an explanation of the
brightest objects in the universe - quasars and active galactic nuclei. It was
concluded, however, that in white holes that continuously eject matter, a blue
sheet of accreted highly accelerated matter will be formed at the event horizon
of the white hole due to its gravitational force.
Cosmic Fluid/Plasma
Allah Almighty says:
He is the One Who created the heavens
and the earth in six periods—and His Throne (Divine Kingdom) was upon the water—in
order to test which of you is best in deeds.
As we mentioned
in the paper Basics of the Muslim Cosmology, according to Muslim researchers the
said water is not ordinary water (H2O), but it may refer to a
peculiar Cosmic Fluid, which constitutes the fundamental building blocks of the
matter. In our opinion, this Cosmic Fluid must be plasma.
Now some quasars have been reported to spew highly
accelerated plasma as the following study observed.
Carnegie's Eduardo Bañados led a team that found a quasar
with the brightest radio emission ever observed in the early universe, due to
it spewing out a jet of extremely fast-moving material.
Bañados' discovery was followed up by Emmanuel Momjian of
the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, which allowed the team to see with
unprecedented detail the jet shooting out of a quasar that formed within the
universe's first billion years of existence.
This newly
discovered quasar, called PSO J352.4034-15.3373, is one of a rare breed that doesn't
just swallow matter into the black hole but also emits a jet of plasma
traveling at speeds approaching that of light. This jet makes it extremely
bright in the frequencies detected by radio telescopes. Although quasars were
identified more than 50 years ago by their strong radio emissions, now we know
that only about 10 percent of them are strong radio emitters.
NASA confirmed this discovery:
Astronomers have
discovered evidence for an extraordinarily long jet of particles coming from a
supermassive black hole in the early universe, using NASA’s Chandra X-ray
Observatory.
The source of the
jet is a quasar – a rapidly growing supermassive black hole – named PSO
J352.4034-15.3373 (PJ352-15 for short), which sits at the center of a young
galaxy. It is one of the two most powerful quasars detected in radio waves in
the first billion years after the big bang and is about a billion times more
massive than the Sun.
A Russian
astronomer, Yuri Kovalev, who heads the MIPT Laboratory of Fundamental and
Applied Research of Relativistic Objects of the Universe, commented:
"The fact that jet radiation was
polarized was known. We combined the data obtained by radio and optical
telescopes and showed that the polarization is directed along the jet. The
conclusion from this is that hot plasma must be moving in a magnetic field that
is coiled like a spring."
These studies show that the quasars not only emitted light in the form
of exceptional energy but converted light into plasma. However, most
astronomers today link the quasars to a black hole instead of a white hole. This
is really problematic and appears to be a result of some biased intentions.
Recognized as
one of the giants of twentieth-century astrophysics, Victor Ambartsumian (1908 – 12 August 1996) was widely regarded as the
founder of theoretical astrophysics in the Soviet Union.
In the 1950s, following the discovery of strong
radio sources in external galaxies, Ambartsumian began studying clusters of
galaxies and discovered that these too are unstable, thereby implying that
galactic formation also is an ongoing process. In 1958, he gave a report to the
Solvay Conference on Physics in Brussels in which he said that explosions in
galactic nuclei cause large amounts of mass to be expelled. For these
explosions to occur, galactic nuclei must contain bodies of huge masses of
unknown nature. From this point forward Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) became a
key component in theories of galactic evolution.
According to Ambartsumian, an Active
Galactic Nucleus expels out matter, which is a property of a white hole,
instead of a black hole. This is what another Russian astronomer Anatoly V. Belyakov claims in his
paper titled Are Quazars Whiteholes?
Another Russian astronomer I.D Novikov referenced
Ambartsumian’s article Voprosy Kosmologii (originally published in the Russian language in 1962) and shared Ambartsumian’s conclusions in these words:
Recently, V.A. Ambartsumyan emphasized that considerable masses of
matter and of relativistic particles could be ejected from the centers of galaxies and that the temperature phenomena in giant galaxies and radio galaxies is due
to the activity of the galactic nuclei.
Ambartsumian’s inferences indicate that the spewing of plasma by Active
Galactic Nuclei or quasars is due to the presence of a white hole in the quasars,
instead of a black hole. Russian astronomers and cosmologists generally agree
with Ambartsumian, while on contrary to the US allies support Stephen
Hawking’s viewpoint, who believed in the existence of a black hole in the center
of massive galaxies. It means a ‘cold war’ continues among cosmologists. That
is why I labeled it as a biased approach.
All galaxies originated as quasars and converted light energy into
plasma. So plasma must be dubbed as Cosmic Fluid which is an ionized dense gas that flows like a perfect liquid. Plasma is the Ambartsumian’s pre-stellar material
that forms stars.
Formation of Stars
Ambartsumian noted in his outstanding work, Theoretical Astrophysics:
It can hardly be doubted that the formation of
stars in an earlier period in the life of the Galaxy took place through
associations. Thus the process of the evolution of the Galaxy must be imagined
as the gradual formation of groups of stars (i. c. associations) from the
pre-stellar material.
So all the observed stars were not born simultaneously, but different
groups of stars evolved at different times. This observation is confirmed by other
astronomers and there is an agreement that in a particular galaxy different
groups of stars are of different ages. Likewise, different stars have different
lifespans depending on their mass, density, and luminosity. Star formation is
not a spontaneous event, but it is a prolonged evolutionary process, that may
spread over centuries.
It is generally believed that most active sites of star formation lie
near the Active Galactic Nucleus. However, younger stars have also been located
in spiral arms and on the outer regions of galaxies.
The Qur’an explicitly mentions that some gaseous materials are involved in
the formation of the observable universe. Allah Almighty says:
“Then He turned to the (lowest)
heaven while it looked like smoke. He said to the heaven and the earth:
“Follow (the Divine Programming), willingly or unwillingly.” They said: “Here
we follow in willing obeisance. Then He made them seven heavens in two days and
revealed to each heaven its law. And We adorned the lower heaven with lamps and firmly secured it. All this is the firm programming of the All-Mighty,
the All-Knowing”
Arabic connotation Dukhan refers to smoke that is produced by
burning some fuel. Surprisingly, there is no word better than smoke to express
the observed gaseous nebulae. We can
easily conclude from this brilliant Qur’anic narrative that Dukhan
(gaseous nebula) is directly involved in star formation by burning fuel of
gases. It is noteworthy that planet formation is also mentioned in this
narrative by pointing to the creation of the Earth. This narrative also
indicates that there are some in-built conflicting forces in plasma that resist
forming stars and planets eventually.
It is observed on large scales that usually a dense cloud of gas and
dust is involved in the star formation which is known as a Giant Molecular Cloud.
Clare Dobbs, a
researcher at the University of Exeter (UK), in his article Giant Clouds: Star Factories of the
Galaxies:
Stars are forming in our
galaxy at a rate of between 1 and 4 solar
masses of stars
per year. In contrast to
elliptical galaxies, which are largely devoid of star
formation,
star formation is still
going on in spiral galaxies because of their
reservoirs of molecular
gas, the fuel for new stars. The discs of
spiral galaxies are comprised not only of stars as
we
clearly see from Earth, but also of gas (the interstellar medium, ISM).
This is where this gas
accumulates into cold,
dense, molecular regions known as molecular
clouds, in which new stars
are formed. Most star
formation occurs in massive molecular clouds, known as a giant molecule-
lar clouds (GMCs). However, while we have a good understanding of how
individual stars form, there is less consensus on how their
natal
clouds of gas
accumulate, how long these clouds last, how star formation
progresses over their
lifetime, and indeed how
star formation has progressed over the lifetime of the Milky
Way. What we do know about
star formation in
nearby galaxies tells us
that the rate of star formation is surprisingly
low, but we do not know
why. In order to do this
we need to study the evolution of the gas, and
how it is turned into stars.
Understanding the
formation and evolution of GMCs, though, is a formidable problem. One of the immediate challenges is the vast range of
scales
between galaxies and
protostellar discs, from ~10 kpcs across down to ~10–3
pc.
Another dif- ficulty is the complex physics involved:
gravity, magnetic fields,
thermodynamics, turbulence, and stellar feedback
all play roles. The ISM itself
is a multiphase medium
of atomic, molecular, and ionized hydrogen spanning a range of them-
temperatures from 10 K to
>10 8K, and many orders of magnitude in density
Stars are forming in our galaxy at a rate of between 1 and 4 solar
masses of stars per year. In contrast to elliptical galaxies, which are
largely devoid of star formation, star formation is still going on in spiral
galaxies because of their reservoirs of molecular gas, the fuel for new stars.
The discs of spiral galaxies are comprised not only of stars as we clearly see
from Earth, but also gas (the interstellar medium, ISM). This is where this
gas accumulates into cold, dense, molecular regions known as molecular clouds,
in which new stars are formed. Most star formation occurs in massive molecular
clouds, known as giant molecular clouds (GMCs). However, while we have a good
understanding of how individual stars form, there is less consensus on how
their natal clouds of gas accumulate, how long these clouds last, how star
formation progresses over their lifetime, and indeed how star formation has
progressed over the lifetime of the Milky Way. What we do know about star
formation in nearby galaxies tells us that the rate of star formation is
surprisingly low, but we do not know why. In order to do this we need to study
the evolution of the gas, and how it is turned into stars. Understanding the
formation and evolution of GMCs, though, is a formidable problem. One immediate
challenge is the vast range in scales between galaxies and protostellar discs,
from ~10 kpcs across down to ~10–3 pcs. Another dif-ficulty is the complex physics
involved: gravity, magnetic fields, thermodynamics, turbulence, and stellar
feedback all play roles. The ISM itself is a multiphase medium of atomic,
molecular, and ionized hydrogen spanning a range of temperatures from 10 K to
>108 K, and many orders of magnitude in density.
We cited this lengthy paragraph deliberately from Dobb’s work to inform
the readers what we know all about star formation briefly. This paragraph is a
good summary of the star formation process. It also differentiates the factual data
and hypothetical explanations of the process involved. Actually, we know little
about the details of the star formation process. Star formation, despite the latest
advancements in astrophysics and far-reaching space telescopes, remains still a
mystery for astronomers.
However, recent findings confirm that electromagnetic force plays
an important role in star formation.
American Astronomical Society
observes:
The formation of Giant
Molecular Clouds (GMCs) is a poorly understood step in the star formation
process. Magnetic fields may play a role in GMC formation. We report the results
of an observational study of magnetic fields in GMCs and in the less dense
interstellar regions that surround them.
Center for
Astrophysics, at Harvard University (USA), observes:
Previous
observations with other telescopes found that magnetic fields surrounding some
young protostars form a classic "hourglass" shape – a hallmark of a
strong magnetic field – that starts near the protostar and extends many
light-years into the surrounding cloud of dust and gas.
By comparing the
structure of the magnetic field in the observations with cutting-edge
supercomputer simulations on multiple scales, astronomers gained important
insights into the earliest stages of magnetized star formation.
The well-known magazine for scientific articles, Nature mentions a
study related to the helical magnetic field discovered in a giant molecular cloud L
1641 located in Orion Nebula:
Using the Nagoya
telescope, Uchida et al. found an unusual helical filamentary
structure, spinning about its long axis, in the L1641 cloud in the Orion cloud
complex. Noting that this structure is consistent with a helically twisted
magnetic field inferred from optical polarization observations, they argued
that the helical filament is a manifestation of torsional magnetohydrodynamic
(Alfvén) waves draining angular momentum from a nearby massive cloud, thus
promoting collapse and star formation.
David Spergel, a
renowned theoretical astrophysicist and current president of the Simons
Foundation in New York, explains the existence of mature galaxies shortly after
the Big Bang:
“I think what we’re seeing is that high-mass
star formation is very efficient in the early universe,” he says. “The gas
pressures are higher. The temperatures are higher. That has an enormous impact
on the environment for star formation.” Perhaps even magnetic fields arose
earlier in the universe than we thought, playing a crucial role in driving
material to kick-start the birth of stars. “We might be seeing a signature of
magnetic fields emerging very early in the universe’s history,”
All these observations indicate the correlation of the magnetic field in
the star formation. More recent studies suggest that magnetic fields not only
play a role in star formation but might be responsible for the spiral
structure of the galaxies.
Evolution of Spiral Galaxies
The spiral pattern being the original pattern of galaxies is an
intriguing concept that has captivated the interest of scientists and
astronomers for many years. The allure of this idea stems from the captivating
beauty and ubiquity of spiral galaxies in the observable universe.
Spiral
galaxies, with their distinct arms winding outward from a central bulge, have
long fascinated astronomers and the general public alike. Examples such as the
iconic Whirlpool Galaxy (M51) and the majestic Andromeda Galaxy (M31) showcase
the mesmerizing structure and intricate details of spiral arms. These galaxies
have captured our imagination and have become symbols of the vast and
awe-inspiring cosmos.
The hypothesis
that the spiral pattern might be the original pattern of galaxies suggests that
these graceful and intricate structures were present in the early universe,
emerging during the formative stages of galactic evolution. If true, it would
imply that the seeds of spiral galaxies were laid down in the primordial conditions
of the cosmos.
The
investigation into the origins of spiral galaxies involves a multidisciplinary
approach. Astronomers employ a combination of observations, computer
simulations, and theoretical models to explore the formation and evolution of galaxies
over cosmic time. By studying the distribution of matter, the dynamics of gas
and stars, and the effects of gravity, researchers aim to unravel the mysteries
surrounding the emergence of spiral patterns.
Computer
simulations play a crucial role in these investigations, allowing scientists to
recreate the conditions of the early universe and simulate the complex
interactions that govern galaxy formation. Through these simulations,
researchers can study the growth of cosmic structures, the interplay between
dark matter and baryonic matter, and the emergence of spiral features in
evolving galaxies.
Observationally,
astronomers have been studying distant and early galaxies to search for
evidence of spiral patterns in the early universe. By peering billions of
light-years away, telescopes like the Hubble Space Telescope and the James Webb
Space Telescope have provided glimpses into the ancient universe, allowing
researchers to trace galactic evolution back to its earliest stages.
While our
current understanding suggests that spiral galaxies may have formed through a
combination of gravitational instabilities, accretion of matter, and
interactions with neighboring galaxies, the question of their origin remains
open. Further observational data, theoretical advancements, and technological
advances will help refine our understanding of the early universe and shed
light on the enigmatic origins of spiral patterns in galaxies.
In conclusion, the idea that the spiral pattern might be the original
pattern of galaxies is an exciting and captivating concept that continues to
drive the scientific investigation. As researchers delve deeper into the
complexities of galaxy formation and explore the mysteries of the early
universe, we hope to gain a deeper understanding of the origins and prevalence
of spiral patterns, unraveling the secrets of the cosmos one galactic spiral at
a time.
Observationally, studies have found that spiral galaxies tend to be
more common in the present-day universe, while elliptical galaxies are more
prevalent in dense galaxy clusters. This observation is consistent with the
idea that spiral galaxies formed earlier when the universe was less clustered
and interactions were less frequent. As the universe evolved and structures
like galaxy clusters formed, mergers and interactions became more common,
leading to the formation of elliptical galaxies.
According to this model, spiral galaxies can form
through the accretion of gas and the conservation of angular momentum, leading
to the formation of rotating disks with spiral arms. As galaxies continue to
evolve and interact, mergers can occur, resulting in the transformation of
spiral galaxies into elliptical galaxies.
Interestingly, all the observed galaxies are not of the
same age, but different types are of different ages. European Space Agency
(ESA) observes:
Current thinking
amongst astronomers is that most elliptical galaxies formed from the collisions
and subsequent mergers of spiral galaxies. The typical ages of the stellar
populations of elliptical and spiral galaxies provide evidence for this theory
because the stars in elliptical galaxies are typically much older and redder than those
in spiral galaxies. Whilst spiral galaxies have rich reservoirs of the dust and
gas that fuel star formation, elliptical galaxies appear to have virtually
exhausted that fuel, and so there is very little raw material for the formation
of new stars. Therefore, it seems likely that elliptical galaxies are largely
populated by stars that formed within active spiral galaxies. Due to their very
low rate of star formation and their populations of old, red stars, elliptical
galaxies are sometimes colloquially referred to as ‘red and dead’ by
astronomers.
Whatever the way of aging the galaxies, whether spiral
galaxies fused to form elliptical galaxies or each spiral galaxy evolved into
an elliptical galaxy individually; spiral patterns can be traced back in all
types of galaxies. This observation leads us to conclude without any doubt that
a spiral pattern is the origin of all the galaxies.
It is true that if spiral galaxies existed earlier than
elliptical galaxies, it is reasonable to expect that they were more prevalent
in the earlier universe. This is because galaxies are thought to have formed
and evolved over cosmic time, and different types of galaxies may have emerged
at different stages.
The
prevailing understanding is that in the early universe, galaxies were in a more
disordered and chaotic state, with more frequent interactions and mergers
occurring. These interactions can disrupt the spiral structure of galaxies and
lead to the formation of elliptical galaxies, which are often found in dense
galaxy clusters where interactions are more common.
On
the other hand, spiral galaxies are typically found in less dense environments
and are often associated with more quiescent regions of the universe. They are
believed to have formed later through a combination of the accretion of gas,
angular momentum conservation, and the settling of material into a rotating
disk.
Therefore,
if we consider the cosmic timeline, it is reasonable to infer that spiral
galaxies were more prevalent in the earlier universe, while elliptical galaxies
formed later through mergers and interactions.
The idea that the spiral pattern might be the original pattern of
galaxies is certainly intriguing and has been the subject of scientific
investigation. While it is an interesting hypothesis, it is important to note
that it is still a matter of scientific debate and ongoing research.
The spiral pattern is indeed observed in many galaxies, including the
Milky Way, and it has been studied extensively. Spiral arms are thought to form
through density waves propagating through the galactic disk, triggering star
formation and creating the characteristic spiral structure. This process has
been observed in simulations and can account for the formation of spiral
patterns in galaxies.
To determine the origin of the spiral pattern in galaxies, researchers
use a combination of observations, simulations, and theoretical models. They
aim to understand the initial conditions of the universe, the dynamics of
matter, and the processes that shape galaxies over cosmic time.
NASA observed
in December 2019, pointing to the formation of spiral galaxies:
“Magnetic fields are invisible, but they may influence the
evolution of a galaxy,” said Enrique Lopez-Rodriguez, a Universities Space
Research Association scientist at the SOFIA Science Center at NASA’s Ames
Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley. “We have a pretty good
understanding of how gravity affects galactic structures, but we’re just
starting to learn the role magnetic fields play.”
They go further:
SOFIA’s infrared observations reveal what human eyes
cannot: magnetic fields that closely follow the newborn star-filled spiral
arms. This supports the leading theory of how these arms are forced into their
iconic shape known as “density wave theory.” It states that dust, gas, and stars
in the arms are not fixed in place like blades on a fan. Instead, the material
moves along the arms as gravity compresses it, like items on a conveyor belt.
The magnetic field alignment stretches across the entire length
of the massive, arms — approximately 24,000 light-years across. This implies
that the gravitational forces that created the galaxy’s spiral shape are also
compressing its magnetic field, supporting the density wave theory. The results
are published in the Astrophysical Journal.
Magnetic fields
play an important role in the formation and stabilization of spiral structures
in galaxies, but the interaction between interstellar gas and magnetic fields
has not yet been understood. In particular, the phenomenon of “magnetic arms”
located between material arms is a mystery.
Observational data shows that spiral galaxies are the earliest galaxies
ever found. It means spiral galaxies are believed
to grow primarily through the accretion of gas, which can fuel the formation of
new stars. As the galaxy grows, its gravitational pull can also attract smaller
galaxies, leading to mergers and the formation of larger galaxies.
Evolution of
Lenticular Galaxies
Lenticular galaxies, also known as S0 galaxies, are a type of
intermediate form between spiral and elliptical galaxies. They are
characterized by a disk-like structure similar to spiral galaxies but lack prominent spiral arms. Instead, lenticular galaxies exhibit a smooth,
featureless disk with a central bulge.
NASA observes:
“Scientists have a few theories about how
lenticular galaxies evolved. One idea suggests these galaxies are older spirals
whose arms have faded. Another proposes that lenticulars formed from mergers of
spiral galaxies.”
The evolution
of lenticular galaxies is thought to occur through a combination of processes.
One proposed mechanism is the transformation of spiral galaxies into lenticular
galaxies through environmental effects within galaxy clusters. As spiral
galaxies interact with their cluster environment, gravitational interactions,
ram pressure stripping, and tidal forces can remove or disrupt their gas and
dust, resulting in the suppression of star formation and the fading of spiral
arms. This process can lead to the formation of lenticular galaxies with a
smooth disk structure.
Another
possible scenario for lenticular galaxy formation involves gas depletion. It is
believed that lenticular galaxies could arise from spiral galaxies whose gas
reservoirs have been exhausted over time. The depletion of gas can halt active
star formation and the maintenance of the spiral structure, resulting in the
transformation into a lenticular galaxy.
Observationally,
lenticular galaxies are found in various environments, including both isolated
regions and galaxy clusters. They often exhibit a higher fraction in dense
galaxy cluster environments, suggesting that environmental factors can play a
role in their formation and evolution.
Understanding the precise evolutionary pathways of lenticular galaxies
is still an active area of research, and further observational data and
theoretical modeling are needed to gain a more comprehensive understanding of
their formation and evolution. Nonetheless, it is clear that lenticular
galaxies represent an intermediate stage in the transformation between spiral
and elliptical galaxies, likely influenced by environmental factors and the
depletion of gas reservoirs.
Evolution of
Elliptical Galaxies
Elliptical galaxies are one of the major types of galaxies,
characterized by their smooth and elongated or spherical shapes, lacking the
prominent disk structure and spiral arms observed in spiral galaxies. The
evolution of elliptical galaxies is thought to occur through a combination of
processes and interactions over cosmic time.
One prominent
mechanism for the formation of elliptical galaxies is the merger and
interaction of smaller galaxies. When galaxies come close to each other and
eventually merge, the gravitational forces involved can disrupt the original
structures and trigger intense starbursts. These mergers can lead to the
formation of a new, more massive elliptical galaxy.
During the
merger process, the orbits of stars and gas within the merging galaxies become
highly disturbed. The resulting gravitational interactions cause the material
to lose angular momentum, leading to the collapse and redistribution of mass
into a more centrally concentrated configuration. This process, known as
violent relaxation, is responsible for the smooth and spheroidal appearance of
elliptical galaxies.
Another
important factor in the evolution of elliptical galaxies is the availability of
gas. Unlike spiral galaxies, ellipticals generally have low levels of gas and
little ongoing star formation. This is thought to be due to a combination of
factors, including the consumption of available gas during earlier starbursts,
the absence of a disk structure that can replenish gas reservoirs, and the
effects of environmental processes such as ram pressure stripping in dense galaxy
clusters.
As a result,
elliptical galaxies are often found in dense environments like galaxy clusters,
where interactions and mergers are more common. The dense environment can strip
gas from infalling galaxies, preventing the formation of new stars and leading
to the transition from spiral to elliptical morphology.
Observationally,
studies have shown a correlation between the properties of elliptical galaxies
and their surrounding environments. Elliptical galaxies located in dense
regions tend to be more massive, with higher velocity dispersions, while those
in less dense regions may exhibit more irregular shapes or intermediate forms
like lenticular galaxies.
In summary, the evolution of elliptical galaxies is thought to occur
through a combination of mergers, interactions, and environmental processes.
Through these mechanisms, the original structures of galaxies can be disrupted,
leading to the formation of smooth, spheroidal elliptical galaxies. The
availability of gas and the environment in which galaxies reside play
significant roles in shaping the final properties of elliptical galaxies
observed in the universe.
When two spirals collide, they lose their familiar shape,
morphing into less-structured elliptical galaxies. Born from collision,
elliptical galaxies are more commonly found around clusters and groups of
galaxies. They are less frequently spotted in the early universe, which
supports the idea that they evolved from the collisions that came later in the
life of a galaxy.
During
a merger, the gas and dust in the galaxies can be compressed and trigger bursts
of star formation. This can result in a rejuvenation of the merged galaxy, with
the formation of new stars and the creation of a new population of young stars.
In
addition to mergers, internal processes such as feedback from supernovae and
active galactic nuclei (AGN) can also play a role in the evolution of
elliptical galaxies.
The Fate of Spiral
Galaxies
Based on observational data and our current understanding, the
ultimate fate of a spiral galaxy can vary depending on a variety of factors,
including its environment, interactions with other galaxies, and the
availability of gas for star formation. While individual galaxies can have
unique evolutionary paths, there are several potential outcomes that have been
proposed:
Transformation into an Elliptical Galaxy:
Through interactions and mergers with other galaxies, a spiral
galaxy can undergo structural changes and eventually transform into an
elliptical galaxy. This process involves the disruption of the spiral arms, the
redistribution of mass, and the eventual formation of a more spheroidal shape.
Sustaining as a Spiral Galaxy:
Some spiral galaxies can maintain their structure and continue
to exist as spiral galaxies over long periods of time. This can occur if the
galaxy avoids significant interactions or disruptions and has a steady supply
of gas to sustain ongoing star formation. The spiral arms may evolve and change
in appearance, but the overall spiral structure can persist.
Transition into a Lenticular Galaxy:
Lenticular galaxies, also known as S0 galaxies, are intermediate
forms between spiral and elliptical galaxies. They have a disk-like structure
similar to spirals but lack prominent spiral arms. A spiral galaxy can evolve
into a lenticular galaxy through the gradual fading or dissolution of its
spiral arms, often due to gas depletion and aging.
Disruption or Cannibalization:
In dense environments such as galaxy clusters, interactions between galaxies can be
frequent and intense. Spiral galaxies may experience tidal forces, ram pressure stripping, or mergers that can disrupt their structure, strip away their gas reservoirs, and eventually lead to their assimilation into larger galaxies.
It is important to note that these outcomes are not mutually exclusive, and the fate
of a particular spiral galaxy depends on its specific circumstances. Additionally, our understanding of galaxy evolution is still evolving, and ongoing research and observations continue to refine our knowledge of the diverse pathways that galaxies can follow throughout their lifetimes.
